Artist info:
Also known as
Verified yes
GenreCountry
Rank1,604 (new)
Albums114
Songs135
AboutGene Autry was more than a musician. His music, coupled with his careers
in movies and on radio and television, made him a part of the mythos that
has made up the American identity for the past hundred years — John
Wayne with a little bit of Sam Houston and Davy Crockett all rolled into one,
with a great singing voice and an ear for music added on. He defined
country music for two generations of listeners, cowboy songs for much of
the 20th century, and American music for much of the world. He was
country music's first genuine "multimedia" star, the best-known country &
western singer on records, in movies, on radio, and on television from the
early '30s until the mid-'50s. His 300 songs cut between 1929 and 1964
include nine gold record awards and one platinum record; his 93 movies
saved one big chunk of the movie industry, delighted millions, and made
millionaires of several producers (as well as Autry himself); his radio and
television shows were even more popular and successful; and a number of
his songs outside of the country & western field have become American
pop culture touchstones.
The biggest selling country & western singer of the middle of the 20th
century was born Orvon Gene Autry on September 29, 1907, in the tiny
Texas town of Tioga, the son of Delbert and Elnora Ozmont Autry. He was
first taught to sing at age five by his grandfather, William T. Autry, a
Baptist preacher and descendant of some of the earliest settlers in Texas,
contemporaries of the Houstons and the Crocketts (an Autry had died at
the Alamo). The boy's interest in music was encouraged by his mother,
who taught him hymns and folk songs and read psalms to him at night.
Autry got his first guitar at age 12, bought from the Sears, Roebuck & Co.
catalog for eight dollars (saved from his work as a hired hand on his uncle's
farm baling and stacking hay). By the time he was 15, he had played
anyplace there was to perform in Tioga, including school plays and the local
cafe, but made most of his living working for the railroad as an apprentice
at $35 a month. Later on, as a proper telegraph operator, he was making
$150 a month, which those days was a comfortable income in that part of
Texas.
He was working the four-to-midnight shift at the local telegraph office in
Chelsea, OK, one summer night in 1927 when, to break up the monotony,
he began strumming a guitar and singing quietly to himself. A customer
came into the office; rather than insisting upon immediate service, he
motioned for Autry to continue singing, then sat down to watch and listen
while he looked over the pages he was preparing to send. At one point, the
visitor asked him to sing another. Finally, after dropping his copy on the
counter, the customer told Autry that with some hard work, he might have
a future on the radio, and should consider going to New York to pursue a
singing career. The man, whom Autry had recognized instantly, was Will
Rogers, the humorist, writer, and movie actor, and one of the most popular
figures in the entertainment world of that era.
Autry didn't immediately give up his job, but just over a year later he was
in New York auditioning for a representative of RCA Victor. The judgment
was that he had a good voice, but should stay away from pop hits, find his
own kind of songs and his own sound, and get some experience. He was
back six months later, on October 9, 1929, cutting his first record, "My
Dreaming of You"/"My Alabama Home," for Victor. Two weeks later, Autry
was making a demo record for the Columbia label of Jimmie Rodgers'
"Blue Yodel No. 5." Present that same day in the studio were two up-and-
coming singers, Rudy Vallée and Kate Smith. Autry found himself being
pressured to sign an exclusive contract with Victor, but chose instead to
sign with the American Record Corporation. Their general manager, Arthur
Sattherly (who would later record Leadbelly, among many other acts),
persuaded Autry that while Victor was a large company and could offer
more money and a better marketing apparatus, he would be lost at Victor
amid its existing stable of stars, whereas ARC would treat him as their
most important star. Additionally, Sattherly — through a series of
arrangements involving major retail and chain stores across the country —
now had the means to get Autry's records into peoples' hands as easily as
Victor.
His first recordings had just been released when his mother, who'd been ill
for months, died at the age of 45, apparently of cancer. Autry's father
began drifting away soon afterward, and he became the head of the family
and the main supporter of himself, two sisters, and a younger brother. In
early December of 1929, Autry cut his first six sides for ARC. The music
was a mix of hillbilly, blues, country, yodel songs, and cowboy ballads. His
breakthrough record, "That Silver-Haired Daddy of Mine," co-written by
Autry and his friend Jimmy Long one night at the railroad depot, was
released in 1931. The song sold 30,000 copies within a month, and by the
end of a year 500,000 had been sold, an occasion that American Records
decided to mark with the public presentation of a gold-plated copy of the
record. Autry received a second gold record when sales later broke one
million. And that was where the notion of the Gold Record Award was born.
The record also led him into a new career on the radio as Oklahoma's
Yodeling Cowboy on the National Barn Dance show sponsored by WLS out
of Chicago. It was there that Autry became a major national star — his
record sales rose assisted by his exposure on radio.
During the early years of his career, Autry took a number of important
collaborators and musicians aboard. Among them were Fred Rose, the
songwriter (later responsible for "Your Cheatin' Heart") with whom he
collaborated on many of his hits, and fiddle player Carl Cotner (who also
played sax, clarinet, and piano), who became his arranger. Autry had a
knack for knowing a good song when he heard it (though he almost passed
on the biggest hit of his career), and for knowing when a song needed
something extra in its arrangement, but it was Cotner who was able to
translate his sensibilities into musical notes and arrangements. Mary Ford,
later of Les Paul fame, was in Autry's band at one time, and in 1936 Autry
signed up a 17-year-old guitar player named Merle Travis, the future
country star and songwriter.
By the early '30s, Autry became one of the most beloved singers in country
& western music. By 1933, he was getting fan letters by the hundreds
every week, and his record sales were only going up. Autry's career
might've been made right there, but fate intervened again that year, in the
form of the movie business. The Western — especially the B Western, the
bottom-of-the-bill, low-budget action oater — had been hit very hard by the
coming of sound in the years 1927 to 1929. Audiences expected dialogue in
their movies, and most Western stars up to that time were a lot better at
riding, roping, and shooting than reading lines. Not only did producers and
directors need something to fill up the soundtracks of their movies,
especially on the limited budgets of the B Westerns, but something to
substitute for violent action, which was being increasingly criticized by
citizen groups.
Cowboy star Ken Maynard, who was a great trick rider and stuntman but
no singer, had tried singing songs in a few of his movies, and the producers
noticed that the songs had gone over well despite his vocal limitations.
Maynard was making another Western, In Old Santa Fe (1934), for Mascot
Pictures, and producer Nat Levine decided to try an experiment, putting in
a musical number sung by a professional. By sheer chance, the American
Record Company and Mascot Pictures were locked together financially,
though indirectly, and with the help from the president of ARC, Levine was
steered toward Autry.
A phone call brought the young singer and another ARC performer —
multi-instrumentalist/comedian Smiley Burnette — out to Hollywood, where,
after a quick meeting and screen test, the two were put into In Old Santa
Fe. Autry had only one scene, singing a song and calling a square dance,
but that scene proved to be one of the most popular parts of the movie.
Levine next stuck Autry and Burnette into a Ken Maynard serial, Mystery
Mountain, in minor supporting roles. But Autry's next appearance was much
more important, as the star of the highly successful 12-chapter serial The
Phantom Empire. Perhaps recognizing that Autry was no "actor," and that
he had an audience of millions already, he, the writers, and the producer
agreed that he should simply play "Gene Autry," a good-natured radio
singer and sometime cowboy. The success of Autry's early films was not
enough to save Mascot Pictures, which collapsed under the weight of debts
held by Consolidated Film Laboratories, which did Mascot's film processing.
In 1935, Consolidated forced a merger of Mascot and a handful of other
small studios and formed Republic Pictures, with Consolidated's president,
Herbert J. Yates, at the helm. Republic thrived in the B movie market,
ultimately dominating the entire field for the next 20 years. And central to
Republic's success were the Westerns of Gene Autry.
His first starring Western for the newly organized Republic Pictures,
Tumbling Tumbleweeds (released on September 5, 1935), which also
included the singing group the Sons of the Pioneers, was a huge hit, and
was followed by Melody Trail, The Sagebrush Troubador, and The Singing
Vagabond, all released during the final three months of 1935. Autry settled
into a schedule of one movie every six weeks, or eight per year, at $5,000
per movie, and a formula was quickly established. The production values
on these movies were modest, in keeping with their low budgets and tight
shooting schedules, but within the framework of B Westerns and the
context of their music, they were first-rate productions. By 1937 and for
five years after — a string that was only broken when he enlisted in the
army during World War II — Autry was rated in an industry survey of
theater owners as one of the top ten box-office attractions in the country,
alongside the likes of James Cagney and Clark Gable. Autry was the only
cowboy star to make the list, and the only actor from B movies on the list.
For Republic Pictures, his movies were such a cash cow, and so popular in
the southern, border, and western states, that the tiny studio was able to
use them as a way to force "block booking" on theater owners and chains
— that is, theaters only got access to the Autry movies scheduled each
season if they bought all of Republic's titles for that season. It was Autry's
discovery of this policy (which, in fairness, was practiced by every major
studio at the time, and led to the anti-trust suit by the government that
ultimately forced the studios to give up their theater chains) in early 1938
that led to his first break with Republic. The problems had been brewing for
some time, over Autry's unhappiness at never having gotten a raise from
his original Mascot-era $5,000-per-movie deal, and contractual clauses —
which had never been exercised, but worried him nonetheless — giving
Republic a share of his radio, personal appearance, and endorsement
earnings. After trying unsuccessfully to work out the problems with Yates,
Autry walked out of the studio chief's office and thereafter refused to report
for the first day's shooting on a movie called Washington Cowboy, later
retitled Under Western Stars when it became the debut of Roy Rogers.
After eight months of legal sparring, Autry was left enjoined from making
live appearances. Republic, however, found itself with an uprising of
theater owners and chains on its hands — without a guarantee that it would
have any Autry movies to release, the studio's entire annual distribution
plans were jeopardized. By the fall of 1938 the two sides had come to
terms, with raises for Autry and freedom from the most onerous clauses in
his old contract. Despite his best efforts, however, he couldn't help the
theater owners over the block-booking policy, for it was now entrenched in
the industry and an integral part of Republic's business plan.
Meanwhile, his recording career continued, often in tandem with the movies.
Whenever Republic could, the studio licensed the rights to whatever hit
song Autry had most recently recorded to use it as the title of his newest
picture — when this was done, Republic always charged the theater owners
somewhat more for the film, and they paid it, because the song had
"pre-sold" the movie to the public. The songs kept coming, sometimes out
of the movies themselves, and not always his own: Autry's friend Ray
Whitley had written "Back in the Saddle Again" for a 1938 George O'Brien
Western called Border G-Man, and when Autry was looking for a theme
song for his own radio show, he went back to Whitley's song, made a few
changes, and recorded it himself. Along with "That Silver-Haired Daddy of
Mine," it was the song he would be most closely associated with.
Autry's career was interrupted by his service in the military during World
War II, but when he returned to the recording and movie studios in 1945,
he resumed both his singing and film careers without skipping a beat. He
was still a name to be reckoned with at the box office, although he was
never again ranked among the top ten money-making stars of movies.
The cultural dislocations caused by World War II and their effect on rural
and small-town America and on the movie business, as well as the
impending arrival of television, had shrunk the B movie market to a
shadow of its 1930s glory. His movies still made money, however, and he
kept making them right into the beginning of the 1950s, after which he
moved into television production — Autry had already begun buying up
radio stations before the war, and by the early '50s he was owner of
several television stations, a studio, and his own production company,
where he made his own television program as well as others that he owned.
His singing career was bigger than ever, however. Even before the war,
Autry had occasionally moved away from country music and scored big, as
with his 1940 hit version of "Blueberry Hill," which predated Fats Domino's
recording by 16 years. After the war, he still did cowboy and country songs
such as "Silver Spurs" and "Sioux City Sue," sprinkled with occasional folk
songs and pop numbers. In 1949, however, Autry scored the biggest single
hit of his career — and possibly the second- or third-biggest hit song ever
recorded up to that time — with "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer," a song
by Johnny Marks that Autry had recorded only reluctantly, in a single take
at the end of a session. That same year, he cut "(Ghost) Riders in the
Sky," a number by a former forest ranger named Stan Jones, which
became both a country and pop music standard, cut by everyone from
Vaughan Monroe to Johnny Cash.
By the mid-'50s, Autry's career had slowed. Rock & roll and R&B were
attracting younger listeners, and a new generation of country music stars,
heralded by Johnny Cash and Marty Robbins, was beginning to attract
serious sales. Autry, then in his forties, still had his audience, but he
gradually receded from the limelight to attend to his burgeoning business
interests. He died October 2, 1998.
in movies and on radio and television, made him a part of the mythos that
has made up the American identity for the past hundred years — John
Wayne with a little bit of Sam Houston and Davy Crockett all rolled into one,
with a great singing voice and an ear for music added on. He defined
country music for two generations of listeners, cowboy songs for much of
the 20th century, and American music for much of the world. He was
country music's first genuine "multimedia" star, the best-known country &
western singer on records, in movies, on radio, and on television from the
early '30s until the mid-'50s. His 300 songs cut between 1929 and 1964
include nine gold record awards and one platinum record; his 93 movies
saved one big chunk of the movie industry, delighted millions, and made
millionaires of several producers (as well as Autry himself); his radio and
television shows were even more popular and successful; and a number of
his songs outside of the country & western field have become American
pop culture touchstones.
The biggest selling country & western singer of the middle of the 20th
century was born Orvon Gene Autry on September 29, 1907, in the tiny
Texas town of Tioga, the son of Delbert and Elnora Ozmont Autry. He was
first taught to sing at age five by his grandfather, William T. Autry, a
Baptist preacher and descendant of some of the earliest settlers in Texas,
contemporaries of the Houstons and the Crocketts (an Autry had died at
the Alamo). The boy's interest in music was encouraged by his mother,
who taught him hymns and folk songs and read psalms to him at night.
Autry got his first guitar at age 12, bought from the Sears, Roebuck & Co.
catalog for eight dollars (saved from his work as a hired hand on his uncle's
farm baling and stacking hay). By the time he was 15, he had played
anyplace there was to perform in Tioga, including school plays and the local
cafe, but made most of his living working for the railroad as an apprentice
at $35 a month. Later on, as a proper telegraph operator, he was making
$150 a month, which those days was a comfortable income in that part of
Texas.
He was working the four-to-midnight shift at the local telegraph office in
Chelsea, OK, one summer night in 1927 when, to break up the monotony,
he began strumming a guitar and singing quietly to himself. A customer
came into the office; rather than insisting upon immediate service, he
motioned for Autry to continue singing, then sat down to watch and listen
while he looked over the pages he was preparing to send. At one point, the
visitor asked him to sing another. Finally, after dropping his copy on the
counter, the customer told Autry that with some hard work, he might have
a future on the radio, and should consider going to New York to pursue a
singing career. The man, whom Autry had recognized instantly, was Will
Rogers, the humorist, writer, and movie actor, and one of the most popular
figures in the entertainment world of that era.
Autry didn't immediately give up his job, but just over a year later he was
in New York auditioning for a representative of RCA Victor. The judgment
was that he had a good voice, but should stay away from pop hits, find his
own kind of songs and his own sound, and get some experience. He was
back six months later, on October 9, 1929, cutting his first record, "My
Dreaming of You"/"My Alabama Home," for Victor. Two weeks later, Autry
was making a demo record for the Columbia label of Jimmie Rodgers'
"Blue Yodel No. 5." Present that same day in the studio were two up-and-
coming singers, Rudy Vallée and Kate Smith. Autry found himself being
pressured to sign an exclusive contract with Victor, but chose instead to
sign with the American Record Corporation. Their general manager, Arthur
Sattherly (who would later record Leadbelly, among many other acts),
persuaded Autry that while Victor was a large company and could offer
more money and a better marketing apparatus, he would be lost at Victor
amid its existing stable of stars, whereas ARC would treat him as their
most important star. Additionally, Sattherly — through a series of
arrangements involving major retail and chain stores across the country —
now had the means to get Autry's records into peoples' hands as easily as
Victor.
His first recordings had just been released when his mother, who'd been ill
for months, died at the age of 45, apparently of cancer. Autry's father
began drifting away soon afterward, and he became the head of the family
and the main supporter of himself, two sisters, and a younger brother. In
early December of 1929, Autry cut his first six sides for ARC. The music
was a mix of hillbilly, blues, country, yodel songs, and cowboy ballads. His
breakthrough record, "That Silver-Haired Daddy of Mine," co-written by
Autry and his friend Jimmy Long one night at the railroad depot, was
released in 1931. The song sold 30,000 copies within a month, and by the
end of a year 500,000 had been sold, an occasion that American Records
decided to mark with the public presentation of a gold-plated copy of the
record. Autry received a second gold record when sales later broke one
million. And that was where the notion of the Gold Record Award was born.
The record also led him into a new career on the radio as Oklahoma's
Yodeling Cowboy on the National Barn Dance show sponsored by WLS out
of Chicago. It was there that Autry became a major national star — his
record sales rose assisted by his exposure on radio.
During the early years of his career, Autry took a number of important
collaborators and musicians aboard. Among them were Fred Rose, the
songwriter (later responsible for "Your Cheatin' Heart") with whom he
collaborated on many of his hits, and fiddle player Carl Cotner (who also
played sax, clarinet, and piano), who became his arranger. Autry had a
knack for knowing a good song when he heard it (though he almost passed
on the biggest hit of his career), and for knowing when a song needed
something extra in its arrangement, but it was Cotner who was able to
translate his sensibilities into musical notes and arrangements. Mary Ford,
later of Les Paul fame, was in Autry's band at one time, and in 1936 Autry
signed up a 17-year-old guitar player named Merle Travis, the future
country star and songwriter.
By the early '30s, Autry became one of the most beloved singers in country
& western music. By 1933, he was getting fan letters by the hundreds
every week, and his record sales were only going up. Autry's career
might've been made right there, but fate intervened again that year, in the
form of the movie business. The Western — especially the B Western, the
bottom-of-the-bill, low-budget action oater — had been hit very hard by the
coming of sound in the years 1927 to 1929. Audiences expected dialogue in
their movies, and most Western stars up to that time were a lot better at
riding, roping, and shooting than reading lines. Not only did producers and
directors need something to fill up the soundtracks of their movies,
especially on the limited budgets of the B Westerns, but something to
substitute for violent action, which was being increasingly criticized by
citizen groups.
Cowboy star Ken Maynard, who was a great trick rider and stuntman but
no singer, had tried singing songs in a few of his movies, and the producers
noticed that the songs had gone over well despite his vocal limitations.
Maynard was making another Western, In Old Santa Fe (1934), for Mascot
Pictures, and producer Nat Levine decided to try an experiment, putting in
a musical number sung by a professional. By sheer chance, the American
Record Company and Mascot Pictures were locked together financially,
though indirectly, and with the help from the president of ARC, Levine was
steered toward Autry.
A phone call brought the young singer and another ARC performer —
multi-instrumentalist/comedian Smiley Burnette — out to Hollywood, where,
after a quick meeting and screen test, the two were put into In Old Santa
Fe. Autry had only one scene, singing a song and calling a square dance,
but that scene proved to be one of the most popular parts of the movie.
Levine next stuck Autry and Burnette into a Ken Maynard serial, Mystery
Mountain, in minor supporting roles. But Autry's next appearance was much
more important, as the star of the highly successful 12-chapter serial The
Phantom Empire. Perhaps recognizing that Autry was no "actor," and that
he had an audience of millions already, he, the writers, and the producer
agreed that he should simply play "Gene Autry," a good-natured radio
singer and sometime cowboy. The success of Autry's early films was not
enough to save Mascot Pictures, which collapsed under the weight of debts
held by Consolidated Film Laboratories, which did Mascot's film processing.
In 1935, Consolidated forced a merger of Mascot and a handful of other
small studios and formed Republic Pictures, with Consolidated's president,
Herbert J. Yates, at the helm. Republic thrived in the B movie market,
ultimately dominating the entire field for the next 20 years. And central to
Republic's success were the Westerns of Gene Autry.
His first starring Western for the newly organized Republic Pictures,
Tumbling Tumbleweeds (released on September 5, 1935), which also
included the singing group the Sons of the Pioneers, was a huge hit, and
was followed by Melody Trail, The Sagebrush Troubador, and The Singing
Vagabond, all released during the final three months of 1935. Autry settled
into a schedule of one movie every six weeks, or eight per year, at $5,000
per movie, and a formula was quickly established. The production values
on these movies were modest, in keeping with their low budgets and tight
shooting schedules, but within the framework of B Westerns and the
context of their music, they were first-rate productions. By 1937 and for
five years after — a string that was only broken when he enlisted in the
army during World War II — Autry was rated in an industry survey of
theater owners as one of the top ten box-office attractions in the country,
alongside the likes of James Cagney and Clark Gable. Autry was the only
cowboy star to make the list, and the only actor from B movies on the list.
For Republic Pictures, his movies were such a cash cow, and so popular in
the southern, border, and western states, that the tiny studio was able to
use them as a way to force "block booking" on theater owners and chains
— that is, theaters only got access to the Autry movies scheduled each
season if they bought all of Republic's titles for that season. It was Autry's
discovery of this policy (which, in fairness, was practiced by every major
studio at the time, and led to the anti-trust suit by the government that
ultimately forced the studios to give up their theater chains) in early 1938
that led to his first break with Republic. The problems had been brewing for
some time, over Autry's unhappiness at never having gotten a raise from
his original Mascot-era $5,000-per-movie deal, and contractual clauses —
which had never been exercised, but worried him nonetheless — giving
Republic a share of his radio, personal appearance, and endorsement
earnings. After trying unsuccessfully to work out the problems with Yates,
Autry walked out of the studio chief's office and thereafter refused to report
for the first day's shooting on a movie called Washington Cowboy, later
retitled Under Western Stars when it became the debut of Roy Rogers.
After eight months of legal sparring, Autry was left enjoined from making
live appearances. Republic, however, found itself with an uprising of
theater owners and chains on its hands — without a guarantee that it would
have any Autry movies to release, the studio's entire annual distribution
plans were jeopardized. By the fall of 1938 the two sides had come to
terms, with raises for Autry and freedom from the most onerous clauses in
his old contract. Despite his best efforts, however, he couldn't help the
theater owners over the block-booking policy, for it was now entrenched in
the industry and an integral part of Republic's business plan.
Meanwhile, his recording career continued, often in tandem with the movies.
Whenever Republic could, the studio licensed the rights to whatever hit
song Autry had most recently recorded to use it as the title of his newest
picture — when this was done, Republic always charged the theater owners
somewhat more for the film, and they paid it, because the song had
"pre-sold" the movie to the public. The songs kept coming, sometimes out
of the movies themselves, and not always his own: Autry's friend Ray
Whitley had written "Back in the Saddle Again" for a 1938 George O'Brien
Western called Border G-Man, and when Autry was looking for a theme
song for his own radio show, he went back to Whitley's song, made a few
changes, and recorded it himself. Along with "That Silver-Haired Daddy of
Mine," it was the song he would be most closely associated with.
Autry's career was interrupted by his service in the military during World
War II, but when he returned to the recording and movie studios in 1945,
he resumed both his singing and film careers without skipping a beat. He
was still a name to be reckoned with at the box office, although he was
never again ranked among the top ten money-making stars of movies.
The cultural dislocations caused by World War II and their effect on rural
and small-town America and on the movie business, as well as the
impending arrival of television, had shrunk the B movie market to a
shadow of its 1930s glory. His movies still made money, however, and he
kept making them right into the beginning of the 1950s, after which he
moved into television production — Autry had already begun buying up
radio stations before the war, and by the early '50s he was owner of
several television stations, a studio, and his own production company,
where he made his own television program as well as others that he owned.
His singing career was bigger than ever, however. Even before the war,
Autry had occasionally moved away from country music and scored big, as
with his 1940 hit version of "Blueberry Hill," which predated Fats Domino's
recording by 16 years. After the war, he still did cowboy and country songs
such as "Silver Spurs" and "Sioux City Sue," sprinkled with occasional folk
songs and pop numbers. In 1949, however, Autry scored the biggest single
hit of his career — and possibly the second- or third-biggest hit song ever
recorded up to that time — with "Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer," a song
by Johnny Marks that Autry had recorded only reluctantly, in a single take
at the end of a session. That same year, he cut "(Ghost) Riders in the
Sky," a number by a former forest ranger named Stan Jones, which
became both a country and pop music standard, cut by everyone from
Vaughan Monroe to Johnny Cash.
By the mid-'50s, Autry's career had slowed. Rock & roll and R&B were
attracting younger listeners, and a new generation of country music stars,
heralded by Johnny Cash and Marty Robbins, was beginning to attract
serious sales. Autry, then in his forties, still had his audience, but he
gradually receded from the limelight to attend to his burgeoning business
interests. He died October 2, 1998.
Most Popular Songs (More)
Most Popular Albums (More)
Artists you may also like
Pictures (79)
Fans (1)